The Effect Of The North American P-51 Mustang On The Air War In WWII E

The Effect of the North American P-51 Mustang On the Air War in WWII Abstract This paper deals with the contributions of the P-51 Mustang to the eventual victory of the Allies in Europe during World War II. It describes the war scene in Europe before the P-51 was introduced, traces the development of the fighter, its advantages, and the abilities it was able to contribute to the Allies' arsenal. It concludes with the effect that the P-51 had on German air superiority, and how it led the destruction of the Luftwaffe. The thesis is that: it was not until the advent of the North American P-51 Mustang fighter, and all of the improvements, benefits, and side effects that it brought with it, that the Allies were able to achieve air superiority over the Germans. This paper was inspired largely by my grandfather, who flew the P-51 out of Leiston, England, during WW II and contributed to the eventual Allied success that is traced in this paper. He flew over seventy missions between February and August 1944, and scored three kills against German fighters. Table of Contents Introduction Reasons for the Pre-P-51 Air Situation The Pre-P-51 Situation The Allied Purpose in the Air War The Battle at Schweinfurt The Development of the P-51 The Installation of the Merlin Engines Features, Advantages, and Benefits of the P-51 The P-51's Battle Performance The Change in Policy on Escort Fighter Function P-51's Disrupt Luftwaffe Fighter Tactics P-51's Give Bombers Better Support Conclusion Works Cited Introduction On September 1, 1939, the German military forces invaded Poland to begin World War II. This invasion was very successful because of its use of a new military strategic theory -- blitzkrieg. Blitzkrieg, literally "lightning war," involved the fast and deadly coordination of two distinct forces, the Wermacht and the Luftwaffe. The Wermacht advanced on the ground, while the Luftwaffe destroyed the enemy air force, attacked enemy ground forces, and disrupted enemy communication and transportation systems. This setup was responsible for the successful invasions of Poland, Norway, Western Europe, the Balkans and the initial success of the Russian invasion. For many years after the first of September, the air war in Europe was dominated by the Luftwaffe. No other nation involved in the war had the experience, technology, or numbers to challenge the Luftwaffe's superiority. It was not until the United States joined the war effort that any great harm was done to Germany and even then, German air superiority remained unscathed. It was not until the advent of the North American P-51 Mustang fighter, and all of the improvements, benefits, and side effects that it brought with it, that the Allies were able to achieve air superiority over the Germans. Reasons for the Pre-P-51 Air Situation The continued domination of the European skies by the Luftwaffe was caused by two factors, the first of which was the difference in military theory between the Luftwaffe and the Royal Air Force. The theories concerning the purpose and function of the Luftwaffe and RAF were exactly opposite and were a result of their experiences in World War I. During WW I, Germany attempted a strategic bombing effort directed against England using Gothas (biplane bombers) and Zeppelins (slow-moving hot-air balloons) which did not give much of a result. This, plus the fact that German military theory at the beginning of WW II was based much more on fast quick results (Blitzkrieg), meant that Germany decided not to develop a strategic air force. The Luftwaffe had experienced great success when they used tactical ground-attack aircraft in Spain (i.e. at Guernica), and so they figured that their air force should mainly consist of this kind of planes. So Germany made the Luftwaffe a ground support force that was essentially an extension of the army and functioned as a long- range, aerial artillery. The RAF, on the other hand, had experimented with ground-attack fighters during WW I, and had suffered grievous casualty rates. This, combined with the fact that the British had been deeply enraged and offended by the German Gotha and Zeppelin attacks on their home soil, made them determined to develop a strategic air force that would be capable of bombing German soil in

Texts in Time Essay Essays

Texts in Time Essay Essays Texts in Time Essay Essay Texts in Time Essay Essay Essay Topic: Prometheus English Advanced: Module A (Texts Through Time) – Practice Essay Whilst texts may be fabricated constructs of composers’ imaginations, they also investigate and direct the societal issues and standards of their period through the individuals they portray. This is clearly the case with Mary Shelley’s novel, â€Å"Frankenstein† (1818), which draws upon the rise of Galvanism and the Romantic Movement of the 1800s, as well as Ridley Scott’s film â€Å"Blade Runner† (1992), which considers the increase in the computing industry and the prevalence of capitalism within the late 20th Century. Both composers fundamentally warn us of the ominous outcomes of our desire for supremacy and uncontrolled technological development. Written in an era of crucial technological progressions, Shelley’s â€Å"Frankenstein† uses the creative arrogance of the Romantic imagination to construct a gothic world in which the protagonist’s obsession with creation of a life has derailed the traditional lines of power and duty. Scott also draws upon components of his own context, including the development of capitalism, the hostile nature of uncontrolled technological progression and the disintegration of the natural world to position us to reassess the outcomes of overstepping our limits. Both texts were produced as reactions against the presiding ethical ways of thinking at the time, emphasizing the need to preserve our humanity in the face of uncontrolled scientific advance. Shelley epitomizes the Romantic Movement as she warns her enlightened society of playing God. Her warning pervades through the individual character of Victor, whose self-aggrandizing speech â€Å"many excellent natures would owe their being to me,† represents a society obsessed with reanimation. Shelley challenges the ethics of her character’s quest for supremacy through his reflection â€Å"lost all soul or sensation but for this one pursuit,† as the juxtaposition of â€Å"all† and â€Å"one† underlines Victor’s extensive fixation on defeating death. Frequent mythical allusions to Prometheus: â€Å"How dangerous is the acquirement of knowledge† depicts Victor as an Aristotelian tragic hero whose blind ambition forebodes his own defeat and dehumanization. In addition, Victor’s impetuous rejection of his appalling creation, leads to the monster’s spiritual revolt: â€Å"vowed eternal hatred and vengeance to all mankind. This, together with the Monster’s questioning of how Victor could â€Å"sport thus with life†, positions us to question the role of science in our society as Shelley underpins the dangers of humankind’s intrinsic longing to play the role of the Creator. Despite their contextual discrepancies, such a warning also exists within Scott’s Blade Runner, where the director imitates the rise of capitalist principles through the symbolic ascendancy of the individual Tyrell’s towering pyramid, a reflection of both his desire for supremacy and commercial authority. Tyrell’s selfish nature is embodied in his greeting of Roy which is clouded with insincere cliches: â€Å"the light that burns twice as bright burns half as long† and biblical praises â€Å"look at you, you’re the prodigal son, you’re quite a prize;† he uses a calm tone to ease Roy, however such symbols are unnervingly toppled through both the foreboding Chiaroscuro of the flickering candlelight and his brutal death at the hands of his own creation. Here, Tyrells menacing scream as Roy ruptures his eyes, a metaphor of his blind ambition, creates an atmosphere of extreme terror as responders understand how Man’s hubristic desire to achieve supremacy results in his unavoidable destruction. Scott’s warning of the dangers of such a desire is also apparent within the expansive shots of 2019 Los Angeles, displaying a dismal and tenebrous world lit by the glow of corporate advertisements, a portrayal of a desolate future controlled by consumerism. In addition, both texts warnings involve the dangers of rampant technological advances. Frankenstein† further establishes the Romantic Movement’s influence on Shelley’s mindset, as her criticisms of the Industrial Revolution reflect their denigration of rationality. She claims that if we allow science and technology to continue at an unheeded rate, then humankind shall become controlled. She achieves this through the use of the character of the monster, parti cularly when he ironically says the word â€Å"slave† and the statement â€Å"You are my creator, but I am your master obey! †, which both demonstrate the way consumerism has subjugated humankind entirely, an idea fully extrapolated in Blade Runner. She further stresses this warning through the use of authorial intrusion: â€Å"man, you shall repent of the injuries you inflict†, in which she states, through the character of the monster, that unheeded scientific advance shall result in disaster. The monster’s statement of values: â€Å"I cannot believe that I am the same creature whose thoughts were once filled with sublime and transcendent visions of the beauty and the majesty of goodness,† suggests that our artificial creations will ultimately lead to the dehumanising of all aspects of life, and the loss of all positive â€Å"human† values. Similarly, Scott’s display of a desolate industrialised world is due to his intuition that scientific advance has already determined Man’s separation from Nature. Most noteworthy is the opening panoramic shot of burning smokestacks which, together with the evocative Vangelis soundtrack, initiates a septic stench of scientific overload. Indeed, this representation of a decomposing environment reflects the increasing ecological realization of the 1980s, which, whilst different to Shelley’s Romantic values, is similarly used to underline the demolition of humanity due to science. Moreover, Scott clarifies to us the dehumanizing effects of such advance, foregrounded through the individual, Deckard’s â€Å"retiring† of the Replicant Zhora. Here, the stylistic positioning of the transparent poncho places further stress on the brutality of this individual’s death, with the slow-motion low angle shot communicating her intensified sense of humanity within her last aching moments. In contrast, Deckard’s dispassionate features proposes that our artificial creations will ultimately lead to the dehumanizing of humanity, with both Scott and Shelley warning us of the grim results of unchecked technological advance. Thus, we can see how both Shelley and Scott communicate their ideas in their texts, Frankenstein and Blade Runner, through their choice of characters, as they draw upon the societal anxieties of their times in order to warn us of the outcomes of overstepping our limits and unchecked scientific progression. Subsequently, it becomes apparent that despite their contextual differences, both texts are in fact linked through their use of individuals to challenge the way society thought in their respective eras. 1028 words

Business in India Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

Business in India - Essay Example In case of the urban areas, traffic congestion is common especially during peak hours (Gesteland & Gesteland, 2010, p. 23). Therefore, an American businessman should have enough endurance when dealing with Indian employees’ lack of punctuality, late deliveries, and issues regarding missed deadlines (pp. 24 – 25). Basically, becoming impatient with their lack of punctuality can only trigger misunderstanding between the business owner and the Indian counterpart. With regards to religion, an American businessman should know that on top of Hinduism, there are some Indians who are Buddhists, Christians, Muslims, and Sikhs (Fox, 2008, pp. 293 – 294). Since Muslims are forbidden to eat pork, an American businessman should avoid offering pork meat when going out for a lunch meeting with an Indian Muslim. The business behavior of Indians vary depending on their age, educational attainment, type of industry they belong to, knowledge about the business practices in the West, and specific region where they came from (Gesteland & Gesteland, 2010, p. 16). To avoid conflict with Indian employees, an American businessman should know that all Indians are different from one another depending on their cultural background. Therefore, the inability of an American businessman to modify his behavior and business approach when dealing with a potential business partner will lead to poor business operations respectively (Fox, 2008, p.

Emotional Intelligence Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

Emotional Intelligence - Essay Example According to Goleman, emotional intelligence is the management of feelings so that they are expressed appropriately and effectively in order to allow people to work together for a common goal (Leadership Organization 2012: 42). Additional definitions given include one that calls it the capacity to understand and use emotional information, either from others or from one’s own, accordingly. The concept of emotional intelligence is tied around the ability to be aware and express emotions; moreover, it is the ability to be aware of other people’s feelings, establish interpersonal relationships and the ability to manage and regulate emotions. The other two aspects of emotional intelligence are the ability to realistically and flexibly cope with the immediate situation and solve problems of personal and interpersonal nature as they arise, as well as generate positive feelings that allow one to be motivated adequately in order to achieve personal goals. In addition, emotional intelligence is known to affect the personality traits that an individual exhibits, which include sociability, extraversion, self-esteem, persistence and optimism. This is because, by people understanding their own, and other people’s feelings, people can manage relationships appropriately. Therefore, emotional intelligence is crucial in influencing people and leading them to achieve certain goals that in which one has an interest. In leadership, it is crucial to have emotional intelligence and apply it to all situations that involve relationships with people in order to affect the outcome that people under one’s leadership. This is particularly so in transformational leadership styles. Moreover, in this form of leadership, a leader operates at the emotional level of transforming people and their outcomes (Leadership Organization 2012: 18). Therefore, in transformational leadership, emotional intelligence is used to inspire involvement, loyalty, commitment and performa nce (Leadership Organization 2012: 18). In addition, this is done by leaders identifying themselves as a force and commissioners of change through taking up that role and embodying with it (Leadership Organization 2012: 18). This is concerning the behavior they portray and the influence they seek to mount on their followers. Thus, leaders using the transformational style of leadership are able to motivate their followers to do more than what they intend to do, and that which they consider themselves capable of achieving by providing a sense of belonging (Deloitte 2012: 10). Emotions are expressed in offering meaning and offering challenging tasks to followers in order to motivate them. This shows the role of emotional intelligence in offering motivation in leadership by letting one’s followers own the goals of an organization and create, and the leader creates an enthusiastic environment in which to work. In addition, transformational leaders and emotional intelligence go han d in hand owing to the leaders characteristics. This is because transformational leaders conduct themselves in ways that are admirable, respectable and that can be trusted by their followers. Thus, they are role models for their followers by portraying the goals and needs of an organization as their own. Moreover, this behavior works on the emotions of the followers by provoking a desire to achieve together with a formidable leader. An additional way in which transformational leadership and emotional intelligence are related is in the opportunities offered by a leader concerning furthering the ideas of their followers. This occurs by leaders engaging their followers in exploring ideas, which builds the relationship between the two parties (Brady et al. 2008: 58). Therefore, the relationship between leaders and followers gets a boost by interacting, exchanging ideas, challenging assumptions and developing new ideas for the betterment of the organization (Leadership Organization 2012: 18). Furthermore, on leadership styles, emotional intelli

How SMEs Differ From Their Larger Counterparts Essay - 1

How SMEs Differ From Their Larger Counterparts - Essay Example Some of the main factors that distinguish SMEs from their larger counterparts include layers of management, individual responsibility, communication, speed of decision-making, attitude towards risk, allocation of resources, formal practices, organizational structure, flexibility, marketing and advertising, environment, and politics. Let us discuss each of them in some detail in order to know how these factors create differences between SMEs and large corporations. 2.1 Layers of Management One of the main differences between SMEs and large companies is the layers of management. SMEs generally have very few layers of management as compared to large companies. They have less number of managers and employees because of simple and short organizational structure. The organizational chart of SMEs also looks flat because of fewer layers of management. â€Å"Small business organizational charts are often flat; they look like two or three stacked rows of bricks with one or two bricks on top† (Ingram n.d., p.1).

History and overview: Catalytic converter

History and overview: Catalytic converter A catalytic converter (colloquially, cat or catcon) is a device used to decrease the toxicity of emissions from an internal combustion engine. A catalytic converter works by using a catalyst to stimulate a chemical reaction in which toxic by-products of combustion are converted to less-toxic substances.First widely introduced on series-production automobiles in the U.S. market for the 1975 model year to comply with tightening EPA regulations on auto exhaust, catalytic converters are still most commonly used in motor vehicle exhaust systems. Catalytic converters are also used on generator sets, forklifts, mining equipment, trucks, buses, trains, airplanes and other engine-equipped machines. History The catalytic converter was invented by Eugene Houdry, a French mechanical engineer and expert in catalytic oil refining[1] who lived in the United States. Around 1950, when the results of early studies of smog in Los Angeles were published, Houdry became concerned about the role of automobile exhaust in air pollution and founded a special company, Oxy-Catalyst, to develop catalytic converters for gasoline engines an idea ahead of its time for which he was awarded a patent (US2742437). Widespread adoption had to wait until the extremely effective anti-knock agent tetraHYPERLINK http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tetra-ethyl_lead-HYPERLINK http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tetra-ethyl_leadethylHYPERLINK http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tetra-ethyl_lead HYPERLINK http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tetra-ethyl_leadlead was eliminated from most gasoline over environmental concerns, as the agent would foul the converter by forming a coating on the catalysts surface, effectively disabling it.[2] The catalytic converter was further developed by JohnHYPERLINK http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_J._Mooney J. HYPERLINK http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_J._MooneyMooney and CarlHYPERLINK http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carl_D._Keith D. HYPERLINK http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carl_D._KeithKeith at the EngelhardHYPERLINK http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Engelhard_Corporation HYPERLINK http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Engelhard_CorporationCorporation,[3] creating the first production catalytic converter . Metal-core converter Ceramic-core converter The catalytic converter consists of several components: The core, or substrate. The core is often a ceramic honeycomb in modern catalytic converters, but stainlessHYPERLINK http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stainless_steel HYPERLINK http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stainless_steelsteel foil honeycombs are also used. The honey-comb surface increases the amount of surface area available to support the catalyst, and therefore is often called a catalystHYPERLINK http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Catalyst_support HYPERLINK http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Catalyst_supportsupport. The ceramic substrate was invented by RodneyHYPERLINK http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rodney_Bagley HYPERLINK http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rodney_BagleyBagley, IrwinHYPERLINK http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Irwin_Lachman HYPERLINK http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Irwin_LachmanLachman and RonaldHYPERLINK http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Ronald_Lewis_(scientist)action=editredlink=1 HYPERLINK http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Ronald_Lewis_(scientist)action=editredlink=1Lewis at Cor ningHYPERLINK http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Corning_Glass HYPERLINK http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Corning_GlassGlass, for which they were inducted into the NationalHYPERLINK http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Inventors_Hall_of_Fame HYPERLINK http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Inventors_Hall_of_FameInventorsHYPERLINK http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Inventors_Hall_of_Fame HYPERLINK http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Inventors_Hall_of_FameHallHYPERLINK http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Inventors_Hall_of_Fame of HYPERLINK http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Inventors_Hall_of_FameFame in 2002. The washcoat. A washcoat is used to make converters more efficient, often as a mixture of silica and alumina. The washcoat, when added to the core, forms a rough, irregular surface, which has a far greater surface area than the flat core surfaces do, which then gives the converter core a larger surface area, and therefore more places for active precious metal sites. The catalyst is added to the washcoat (in suspension) before being applied to the core. The catalyst itself is most often a precious metal. Platinum is the most active catalyst and is widely used. It is not suitable for all applications, however, because of unwanted additional reactions and/or cost. Palladium and rhodium are two other precious metals used. Platinum and rhodium are used as a reduction catalyst, while platinum and palladium are used as an oxidization catalyst. Cerium, iron, manganese and nickel are also used, although each has its own limitations. Nickel is not legal for use in the European Union (due to reaction with carbon monoxide). Copper can be used everywhere except North America, where its use is illegal due to the formation of dioxin. How Catalytic Converters Work James L. Amos/National Geographic/Getty Images A large pile of platinum lined catalytic converters. See more green living pictures. There are millions of cars on the road in the United States, and each one is a source of air pollution. Especially in large cities, the amount of pollution that all the cars produce together can create big problems. To solve those problems, cities, states and the federal government create clean-air laws that restrict the amount of pollution that cars can produce. Over the years, automakers have made many refinements to car engines and fuel systems to keep up with these laws. One of these changes came about in 1975 with an interesting device called a catalytic converter. The job of the catalytic converter is to convert harmful pollutants into less harmful emissions before they ever leave the cars ­ exhaust system. Catalytic converters are amazingly simple devices, so it is incredible to see how big an impact they have. In this article, you will learn which pollutants are produced by an engine and how a catalytic converter deals with each of these pollutants to help reduce [edit] Types [edit] Two-way A two-way catalytic converter has two simultaneous tasks: Oxidation of carbon monoxide to carbon dioxide: 2CO + O2 à ¢Ã¢â‚¬  Ã¢â‚¬â„¢ 2CO2 Oxidation of unburnt hydrocarbons (unburnt and partially-burnt fuel) to carbon dioxide and water: CxH2x+2 + [(3x+1)/2] O2 à ¢Ã¢â‚¬  Ã¢â‚¬â„¢ xCO2 + (x+1) H2O (a combustion reaction) This type of catalytic converter is widely used on diesel engines to reduce hydrocarbon and carbon monoxide emissions. They were also used on gasoline engines in USA market automobiles until 1981. Due to their inability to control nitrous oxide NOHYPERLINK http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/NOxx, they were superseded by three-way converters. [edit] Three-way Since 1981, three-way catalytic converters have been used in vehicle emission control systems in North America and many other countries on roadgoing vehicles. A three-way catalytic converter has three simultaneous tasks: Reduction of nitrogen oxides to nitrogen and oxygen: 2NOx à ¢Ã¢â‚¬  Ã¢â‚¬â„¢ xO2 + N2 Oxidation of carbon monoxide to carbon dioxide: 2CO + O2 à ¢Ã¢â‚¬  Ã¢â‚¬â„¢ 2CO2 Oxidation of unburnt hydrocarbons (HC) to carbon dioxide and water: CxH2x+2 + [(3x+1)/2]O2 à ¢Ã¢â‚¬  Ã¢â‚¬â„¢ xCO2 + (x+1)H2O These three reactions occur most efficiently when the catalytic converter receives exhaust from an engine running slightly above the stoichiometric point. This point is between 14.6 and 14.8 parts air to 1 part fuel, by weight, for gasoline. The ratio for LPG, natural gas and ethanol fuels is slightly different, requiring modified fuel system settings when using those fuels. Generally, engines fitted with 3-way catalytic converters are equipped with a computerized closed-loop feedback fuel injection system using one or more oxygen sensors, though early in the deployment of 3-way converters, carburetors equipped for feedback mixture control were used. While a 3-way catalyst can be used in an open-loop system, NOx reduction efficiency is low. Within a narrow fuel/air ratio band surrounding stoichiometry, conversion of all three pollutants is nearly complete. However, outside that band, conversion efficiency falls very rapidly. When there is more oxygen than required, the system is said to be running lean, and the system is in oxidizing condition. In that case, the converters two oxidizing reactions (oxidation of CO and hydrocarbons) are favoured, at the expense of the reduction of NOx. When there is excessive fuel, the engine is running rich; the reduction of NOx is favoured, at the expense of CO and HC oxidation. [edit] Oxygen storage Three-way catalytic converters can store oxygen from the exhaust gas stream, usually when the air fuel ratio goes lean.[5] When insufficient oxygen is available from the exhaust stream, the stored oxygen is released and consumed (see cerium(IV) oxide). This lean-ness occurs either when oxygen derived from NOx reduction is unavailable or certain maneuvers such as hard acceleration enrich the mixture beyond the ability of the converter to supply oxygen. [edit] Unwanted reactions Unwanted reactions can occur in the three-way catalyst, such as the formation of odiferous hydrogen sulfide and ammonia. Formation of each can be limited by modifications to the washcoat and precious metals used. It is difficult to eliminate these byproducts entirely. Sulfur-free or low-sulfur fuels eliminate or reduce hydrogen sulfide. For example, when control of hydrogen sulfide emissions is desired, nickel or manganese is added to the washcoat. Both substances act to block the adsorption of sulfur by the washcoat. Hydrogen sulfide is formed when the washcoat has adsorbed sulfur during a low temperature part of the operating cycle, which is then released during the high temperature part of the cycle and the sulfur combines with HC. [edit] For diesel engines For compression-ignition (i.e., diesel) engines, the most commonly used catalytic converter is the diesel oxidation catalyst. This catalyst uses O2 (oxygen) in the exhaust gas stream to convert CO (carbon monoxide) to CO2 (carbon dioxide) and HC (hydrocarbons) to H2O (water) and CO2. These converters often operate at 90% efficiency, virtually eliminating diesel odor and helping to reduce visible particulates (soot). But they cannot reduce NOx because chemical reactions always occur in the simplest possible way, and the existing O2 in the exhaust gas stream would react first. To reduce NOx on a compression ignition engine, the chemical composition of the exhaust must first be changed. Two main techniques are used: exhaust gas recirculation (EGR) and selective catalytic reduction (SCR). NOx trapping (with NOx absorbers) is a third method, but as of yet (2010), is not widely used. Diesel engine exhaust contains relatively high levels of particulate matter (soot), consisting in large part of elemental carbon. Catalytic converters cannot clean up elemental carbon, though they do remove up to 90% of the soluble organic fraction[citation needed], so particulates are cleaned up by a soot trap or diesel particulate filter (DPF). In the United States, all on-road heavy-duty vehicles powered by diesel and built after 1 January 2007 must be equipped with a catalytic converter and a diesel particulate filter.[6] Instead of catalysis, a reagent such as ammonia pyrolyzed in situ from urea, is sometimes used to reduce the NOx into nitrogen. One trademark product to do this is AdBlue. [edit] For lean-burn engines For lean burn spark ignition engines, an oxidation catalyst is used in the same manner as in a diesel engine. [edit] Installation Many vehicles have a pre-catalyst located close to the engines exhaust manifold. This unit heats up quickly due to its proximity to the engine, and reduces cold-engine emissions by burning off hydrocarbons from the extra-rich mixture used in a cold engine. Many three-way catalytic converters utilize an air injection tube between the first (NOx reduction) and second (HC and CO oxidation) stages of the converter. This tube is fed by a secondary air injection system. The injected air provides oxygen for the catalysts oxidizing reaction. These systems also sometimes include an upstream air injector to admit oxygen to the exhaust system before it reaches the catalytic converter. This precleans the extra-rich exhaust from a cold engine, and helps bring the catalytic converter quickly up to operating temperature. Some newer systems do not employ air injection. Instead, they provide a constantly varying mixture that quickly and continually cycles between lean and rich to keep the first catalyst (NOx reduction) from becoming oxygen loaded, and to keep the second catalyst (CO oxidization) sufficiently oxygen-saturated. They also utilize several oxygen sensors to monitor the exhaust, at least one before the catalytic converter for each bank of cylinders, and one after the converter. Some systems contain the reduction and oxidation functions separately rather than in a common housing. [edit] Damage [edit] Poisoning Catalyst poisoning occurs when the catalytic converter is exposed to exhaust containing substances that coat the working surfaces, encapsulating the catalyst so that it cannot contact and treat the exhaust. The most notable contaminant is lead, so vehicles equipped with catalytic converters can only be run on unleaded gasoline. Other common catalyst poisons include manganese primarily from the gasoline additive MMT, and silicone which can enter the exhaust stream if the engine has a leak allowing coolant into the combustion chamber. Phosphorus is another catalyst contaminant. Although phosphorus is no longer used in gasoline, it (and zinc, another low-level catalyst contaminant) was until recently widely used in engine oil antiwear additives such as ZDDP. Beginning in 2006, a rapid phaseout of ZDDP in engine oils began.[citation needed] Depending on the contaminant, catalyst poisoning can sometimes be reversed by running the engine under a very heavy load for an extended period of time. The increased exhaust temperature can sometimes liquefy or sublimate the contaminant, removing it from the catalytic surface. However, removal of lead deposits in this manner is usually not possible due to leads high boiling point. [edit] Meltdown Any condition that causes abnormally high levels of unburned hydrocarbons raw or partially-burnt fuel to reach the converter will tend to significantly elevate its temperature, bringing the risk of a meltdown of the substrate and resultant catalytic deactivation and severe exhaust restriction. Vehicles equipped with OBD-II diagnostic systems are designed to alert the driver of a misfire condition, along with other malfunctions, by means of the Check Engine light on the dashboard. [edit] Regulations This section does not citeany references or sources. Please help improve this articleby adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challengedand removed. (March 2009) Emissions regulations vary considerably from jurisdiction to jurisdiction. In North America, most spark ignition engines of over 25 brake horsepower (19 kW) output built after January 1, 2004 are equipped with three-way catalytic converters. In Japan, a similar set of regulations came into effect January 1, 2007, while the European Union has not yet enacted analogous regulations. Most automobile spark ignition engines in North America have been fitted with catalytic converters since the mid-1970s, and the technology used in non-automotive applications is generally based on automotive technology. Regulations for diesel engines are similarly varied, with some jurisdictions focusing on NOx (nitric oxide and nitrogen dioxide) emissions and others focusing on particulate (soot) emissions. The regulatory diversity is challenging for manufacturers of the engine as it may not be economical to design an engine to meet two sets of regulations. Regulations of fuel quality vary across jurisdictions. In North America, Europe, Japan, and Hong Kong, gasoline and diesel fuel are highly regulated, and CNG and LPG are being reviewed for regulation. In most of Asia and Africa, the regulations are often lax in some places sulfur content of the fuel can reach 20,000 parts per million (2%). Any sulfur in the fuel can be oxidized to SO2 (sulfur dioxide) or even SO3 (sulfur trioxide) in the combustion chamber. If sulfur passes over a catalyst, it may be further oxidized in the catalyst, i.e. (SO2 may be further oxidized to SO3). Sulfur oxides are precursors to sulfuric acid, a major component of acid rain. While it is possible to add substances like vanadium to the catalyst wash coat to combat sulfur oxide formation, such addition will reduce the effectiveness of the catalyst. The most effective solution is to further refine fuel at the refinery to produce ultra-low sulfur diesel. Regulations in Japan, Europe, and North America tightly restrict the amount of sulfur permitted in motor fuels. However, the expense of producing such clean fuel make it impractical for use in many developing countries. As a result, cities in these countries with high levels of vehicular traffic suffer from acid rain, which damages stone and woodwork of buildings and damages local ecosystems. [edit] Negative aspects Some early converter designs greatly restricted the flow of exhaust, which negatively affected vehicle performance, driveability, and fuel economy.[7] Because they were used with carburetors incapable of precise fuel/air mixture control, they could overheat and set fire to flammable materials under the car.[8] Removing a modern catalytic converter in new condition will only slightly increase vehicle performance without retuning,[9] but their removal or gutting continues.[7]HYPERLINK http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Catalytic_converter#cite_note-9[10] The exhaust section where the converter was may be replaced with a welded-in section of straight pipe, or a flanged section of test pipe legal for off-road use that can then be replaced with a similarly fitted converter-choked section for legal on-road use, or emissions testing.[9] In the US and many other jurisdictions, it is illegal to remove or disable a catalytic converter for any reason other than its immediate replacement[citation need ed]; vehicles without functioning catalytic converters generally fail emission inspections. The aftermarket supplies high-flow converters for vehicles with upgraded engines, or whose owners prefer an exhaust system with larger-than-stock capacity.[11] [edit] Warm-up period Most of the pollution put out by a car occurs during the first five minutes before the catalytic converter has warmed up sufficiently.[12] [edit] Environmental impact Catalytic converters have proven to be reliable and effective in reducing noxious tailpipe emissions. However, they may have some adverse environmental impacts in use: The requirement for a rich burn engine to run at the stoichiometric point means it uses more fuel than a lean burn engine running at a mixture of 20:1 or less. This increases the amount of fossil fuel consumed and the carbon dioxide emissions of the vehicle. However, NOx control on lean burn engines is problematic. Although catalytic converters are effective at removing hydrocarbons and other harmful emissions, they do not solve the fundamental problem created by burning a fossil fuel. In addition to water, the main combustion product in exhaust gas leaving the engine through a catalytic converter or not is carbon dioxide (CO2).[13] Carbon dioxide produced from fossil fuels is one of the greenhouse gases indicated by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) to be a most likely cause of global warming.[14] Additionally, the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) has stated catalytic converters are a significant and growing cause of global warming, due to their release of nitrous oxide (N2O), a greenhouse gas over 300 times more potent than carbon dioxide.[15] Catalytic converter production requires palladium or platinum; part of the world supply of these precious metals is produced near the Russian city of Norilsk, where the industry (among others) has caused Norilsk to be added to Time Magazines list of most polluted places.[16] [edit] Theft Due to the external location and the use of valuable precious metals including platinum, palladium, and rhodium, converters are a target for thieves. The problem is especially common among late-model Toyota trucks and SUVs, due to their high ground clearance and easily-removed bolt-on catalytic converters. Welded-in converters are also at risk of theft from SUVs and trucks, as they can be easily removed.[17]HYPERLINK http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Catalytic_converter#cite_note-17[18] Theft removal of the converter can often inadvertently damage the cars wiring or fuel line resulting in dangerous consequences. Rises in metal costs in the United States during recent years have led to a large increase in theft incidents of the converter,[19] which can then cost as much as $1000 to replace.[20] [edit] Diagnostics Various jurisdictions now legislate on-board diagnostics to monitor the function and condition of the emissions control system, including the catalytic converter. On-board diagnostic systems take several forms. [edit] Temperature sensors Temperature sensors are used for two purposes. The first is as a warning system, typically on 2-Way catalytic converters such as are still sometimes used on LPG forklifts. The function of the sensor is to warn of catalytic converter temperature above the safe limit of 750  °C (1,380  °F). More recent catalytic converter designs are not as susceptible to temperature damage and can withstand sustained temperatures of 900  °C (1,650  °F).[citation needed] Temperature sensors are also used to monitor catalyst functioning usually two sensors will be fitted, with one before the catalyst and one after to monitor the temperature rise over the catalytic converter core. For every 1% of CO in the exhaust gas stream the exhaust gas temperature will rise by 100 °C.[citation needed] [edit] Oxygen sensors The Oxygen sensor is the basis of the closed loop control system on a spark ignited rich burn engine, however it is also used for diagnostics. In vehicles with OBD II, a second oxygen sensor is fitted after the catalytic converter to monitor the O2 levels. The on-board computer makes comparisons between the readings of the two sensors. If both sensors give the same output, the computer recognizes the catalytic converter is not functioning or removed, and will operate a check engine light and retard engine performance. Simple oxygen sensor simulators have been developed to circumvent this problem by simulating the change across the catalytic converter with plans and pre-assembled devices available on the internet, though these are not legal for on-road use.[21] Similar devices apply an offset to the sensor signals, allowing the engine to run a more fuel economical lean burn that may however damage the engine or the catalytic converter.[22] [edit] NOx sensors NOx sensors are extremely expensive and are generally only used when a compression ignition engine is fitted with a selective catalytic reduction (SCR) converter, or a NOx absorber catalyst in a feedback system. When fitted to an SCR system, there may be one or two sensors. When one sensor is fitted it will be pre-catalyst, when two are fitted the second one will be post catalyst. They are utilized for the same reasons and in the same manner as an oxygen sensor the only difference is the substance being monitored.

Genetically Modified Foods: To Label or Not To Label? Essay -- Genetic

Plants or animals that are created through gene slicing techniques of genetic engineering are called genetically modified organisms or, GMOs. This technique for creating plants and animals was first done in the 1970s. According to Non-GMO Project, â€Å"This experimental technology merges DNA from different species, creating unstable combinations of plant, animal, bacterial and viral genes that cannot occur in nature or in traditional crossbreeding.† (Non-GMO Project). This type of genetic modification has started to worry people. Companies are currently not required to label their products to inform customers that their product contains GMOs, and only a few of the many companies voluntarily label their products as GMO-free. Many such as, Journalist for the Santa Fe New Mexican, Jessica Emerson, feel like it is our right to know what companies are putting in the foods we are buying. There are others that disagree such as, physician and molecular biologist Henry Miller; he argues that it is unnecessary and unconstitutional for companies to be required to label their products. This has made quite a controversy. Products sold in Oregon that contain GMOs should be required to be clearly labeled so consumers can make healthy and informed choice on the foods they decide to purchase. The use of GMOs in foods has drastically risen in the United States. The Non-GMO project, a non-profit organization supports this by saying, â€Å"In the U.S., GMOs are in as much as 80% of conventional processed food†(Non-GMO Project). I decided to go shopping to try and find as many products as I could that were labeled GMO-free, I only found one product labeled GMO-free. Many people that purchase vegetables or fruits at the store are unaware that the foods they ar... ...ael. "Why GMO Labeling Won’t Increase Food Prices." Grist.org. Grist, 13 Oct. 2013. Web. 01 Dec. 2013. Miller, Henry I., and Gregory Conko. â€Å"Labeling of Genetically Modified Foods Is Unnecessary and Unconstitutional.† Genetic Engineering. Ed. Noà «l Merino. Detroit: Greenhaven Press, 2013. Opposing Viewpoints in Context. Web. 20 Nov. 2013. "Labeling Food and Ingredients Developed from GM Seed." Monsanto.com. Monsanto, Mar. 2013. Web. 02 Dec. 2013. â€Å"MRSA.† CDC. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, 16 Sept. 2013. Web. 30 Nov. 2013. Weise, Elizabeth. â€Å"Washington State Voters Reject Labeling of GMO Foods.† USA Today. Gannett, 6 Nov. 2013. Web. 29 Nov. 2013. Tady, Megan. â€Å"Genetically Modified Foods Should Be Labeled.† Genetic Engineering. Ed. David M. Haugen and Susan Musser. Detroit: Greenhaven Press, 2009. Opposing Viewpoints in Context. Web. 20 Nov. 2013.

High School Seniors Essay

Many people believe open lunch should be a privilege extended to seniors who wish to leave the school grounds and adjacent areas during their assigned lunch periods. This privilege is predicated on the belief that students as they enter their final years of high school should be trusted to make mature decisions and act responsibly. Some students wish they could leave only so they could get something to eat other than school food. I understand that not every senior shows the proper maturity and they should be identified and treated accordingly. When it comes to privilages, seniors don’t have many compared to underclassman. Sure, we get a free period as opposed to study hall and a senior skip day, but don’t we deserve more for our twelve years of hard work and effort put into school? Don’t we deserve something that, frankly speaking, makes everyone more aware of our seniority status, something that we can enjoy this year and the other grades can look forward to? That something can be found in probably one of the more controversial topics in high schools, off campus lunches. I understand the school is responsible for us from the time we arrive at school until the time we depart, and being able to have an off campus lunch would mean we are still the school’s responsibility, even though we’re not on campus. However, what if parents were to sign a note stating their child is allowed to leave school during lunch hours and would be their responsibility? If anything was to happen to a student, parents would not have the right to run into school, arms flailing wildly, blaming whomever they can for what happened to their child. But isn’t it time that the school lets us depend on ourselves in making the better decisions, which in this case would be coming back to class in time. We are going to go from being monitored all day long to a college environment where we are the ones to decide what to do. Pupils who fail to meet their responsibility may forfeit the privilege altogether and may be subject to other disciplinary actions. The school should develop rules and regulations that promote compliance with the policy and ensure that only eligible seniors utilize the privilege of open lunch.

Anti-Semitism and the Holocaust

Anti-Semitism and the Holocaust Almost immediately following his rise to power, Adolf Hitler began the creation of his concentration camps. His primary step towards the Holocaust was the creation of the "T-4" program. The T-4 program, also known as the Reich Work Group of Sanitariums and Nursing Homes, was created for the medical killing of mental and physical defectives. It operated from the Berlin Chancellery, at Tiergartenstrasse 4, giving it the "T-4" code name. The program was rationalized as the elimination of "unworthy lives".This program paved the way for the Holocaust in several important ways. One way was it had the effect of legitimizing government-sponsored killing. In keeping with the Nazi emphasis on racial purity and national health, "T-4" was presented as a necessary program for eliminating those who carried defective genetic materials which might endanger the quality of the German race.Another way was that it was the beginning stage in the corruption of the German medical profession.According to Bu llock, Hitler was an opportunistic ...Robert J. Lifton (a Nazi doctor) asked the question, "How did a profession committed to healing, the protection of human life, and the relief of human suffering become part of the Nazi killing machine?" The answer to this question is that it was a gradual process, a "slippery slope" which began with the "T-4" Program of "merciful killing", and resulted in the full scale involvement of some members of the medical profession in the mass extermination of Jews and others in the Nazi concentration camps.After WWI, Germany experienced difficult times. The Treaty of Versailles, which ended WWI, completely humiliated Germany. According to the treaty, Germany had to pay other countries for their economic losses, surrender all of its overseas colonies, give back provinces to France, Belgium, and Denmark, and assume full responsibility for the war. This made Germany very poor in the...

Change in Height on a Ramp essays

Change in Height on a Ramp essays Inquiry 3: Change in Height on a Ramp This experiment studied the effects of changing the height of a ramp on a wheeled cart. The first question one encounters with this experiment is how will the change in height effect the cart. Well it is obvious that the cart, as all objects on earth, have the force a gravity to deal with. If the cart was on a flat surface then the force of gravity would match the normal force, and the force of friction would match the forward force, and all the forces would combine and equal zero. However because the cart is on an 11.2? slope, the forces are not equal, this means that the cart is moving. The cart has the constant force of gravity pushing down on it, so the cart accelerates down the ramp. If velocity and time are graphed, then what will the graph look like? The graph will not be linear; an accelerating object does not have a constant speed. The graph will be some kind of a curve. But when comparing the different graphs it should be constant because gravity is constant. Thus, the i ndividual graphs will be curves while the graph of the averages of the trials should be linear. This is because the cart will consistently accelerate relative to the height it is dropped from To set up this experiment a board about 2.5 m in length was placed with one side on a chair and the other on the ground, this created an 11.2? between the ground and the board. Then a computer with a motion detector was brought next to the experiment. The motion detector was taped to the top of the board so that the sensor would shoot down parallel to the board. The cart was then placed at different heights and measured in distance vs. time, and velocity vs. time. The cart was dropped from 0.5 m, 1.0 m, 1.5 m, 1.75 m, and 2.0 m. This distance was measured from the tip of the board that was touching the ground up. To find the data the cart was released from the specified h ...

APN Professional Development Plan Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words - 1

APN Professional Development Plan - Essay Example The discussion that follows will outline an APN professional development plan as well as give the role of the advanced practice nurse. The APN professional development plan would involve six aspects. First is the attendance of continuing education forums like conferences, workshops, clinical updates and rounds that target clinical treatment. Second, the APN can critically review relevant literature like academic journal articles that are targeting clinical treatment. The APN should after that consider how this study impacts their professional development. Thirdly, the APN can enroll for an academic credit course whose focus touches on their practice. Fourthly, the APN can teach other health professionals by offering educational seminars, lectures as well as presentations. Fifthly, the APN can write publications whose aim is to facilitate the integration of evidence-based knowledge into their practice. Lastly, the APN can conduct research that is relevant to their professional field. The scope of practice of the APN includes nurse practitioners, certified nurse-midwives, certified registered nurse anesthetists and clinical nurse specialists. As a nurse practitioner, the APN can work as a licensed and self-regulating practitioner. He or she can conduct an examination on patients and establish the relevant medical diagnosis through the use of the medical history of the client as well as physical analysis. This nurse can command, conduct and deduce screening studies, checks, and diagnostic processes to evaluate and diagnose problems (Fagerstrom & Wangensteen, 2014). This will enable them to institute management and treatment plans. The nurse is in a position to induct consultation, cooperation and applications for a referral to other health professionals and specialists. The nurse can offer pieces of advice, counsel as well as educate communities, families and patients about the

Is current UK IT law relevant when applied to the cloud computing Literature review

Is current UK IT law relevant when applied to the cloud computing - Literature review Example A swift increase in the use of PC and internet has seen the rise to new forms of crimes like publishing sexually overt materials in electronic type, video voyeurism and violation of privacy and leak of information by agent, e-commerce frauds like impersonation commonly known as phishing, identity stealing and unpleasant posts through the use of communication services. Cloud computing can be defined as the use of cloud technology to store and access data that is stored in a virtual space. Cloud computing can be divided into several forms that serve better to explain the whole idea; they include the following: 1. SaaS Through the service, the providers install common software, which enables customers download intended materials without necessarily installing personal copies of the software and the charges are inclusive on the material cost (software as a service). This tool therefore maintains lower costs than other conventional hosting of the cloud computing. 2 Utility computing The i dea behind this type of computing is not new, but this type of cloud computing is getting new life from several companies with online presence who offer storage space and virtual servers that IT can be accessed anytime. Other stakeholders offer solutions that help IT create virtual data enters from commodity servers, such as 3Tera's Aplitic and Cohesive Flexible Technologies' Elastic Server on Demand, Liquid Computing LiquidQ offers similar capabilities, enabling IT to stitch together memory, I/O, storage Internet integration Cloud computing provides a whole range of advantage in the way organizations conduct their business and targeting potential consumers. It is a welcome to small businesses especially to avoid the extra high costs that are associated with setting up IT infrastructure. On the other hand, as virtualization permeates the enterprise, the idea of loosely coupled services running on an nimble, scalable network should eventually make every venture a node in the cloud; i t's a long-running trend with a far-out horizon, but among big megatrends, cloud computing is the most difficult one to argue with in the long term. Addition The increase in awareness of consumer products easily accessible through online means is changing the business environment within the United Kingdom just as is the case with all other parts of the globe. For instance, consumers are increasingly adopting the purchase of software and such entertainment products as music as well as movies from online supplies by a third part which represents a form of cloud computing. However, as Brad gate finds in a report concerning the consumer rights on digital products, the increased awareness and use of cloud computing places the consumer at a point of uncertainty in relation to the legal framework within UK today. This is because unlike the case with other physical products where the consumers are well aware of personal rights, the law in UK is not certain on digital consumer rights. Theref ore according to this report is one shortcoming that is notable within the legal